This blog post explores the historical paths of Italy and Germany during the interwar period, highlighting their similarities and differences, the rise of totalitarian regimes, and the socio-political dynamics that led to the establishment of fascism and national socialism.
In this post, we will delve into the historical trajectories of two significant Western European nations, Italy and Germany, during the interwar period. Their histories reveal both striking similarities and notable differences that shaped their political landscapes.
During the "long nineteenth century," both Italy and Germany underwent a crucial phase of unification, emerging as unified national states. This period marked their ascent in the economic and political spheres of Europe. However, their paths diverged significantly in terms of industrial development. Germany rapidly evolved into a leading industrial power with a high standard of living, while a substantial portion of the Italian population continued to live in poverty.
The aftermath of World War I saw both nations facing dire circumstances. Germany emerged as a clear loser, while Italy, despite being on the winning side, was termed a "defeated victor," gaining little from the Paris Peace Conference. The war and its consequences led to a drastic decline in the living standards of citizens in both countries, fostering widespread disillusionment with their governments, allies, and societies.
This discontent fueled a demand for a "strong hand"—a dictator who could restore order and resolve societal contradictions. Unfortunately, this desire for stability would lead to grave consequences for both nations.
In the wake of their struggles, citizens began to blame various groups for their woes. Some targeted capitalists, others blamed democrats, and a few even scapegoated the Jewish community. This pattern of blaming others for societal problems is a recurring theme in history, as it is often easier to assign blame than to confront the underlying issues.
The early post-war years in both Italy and Germany were marked by chaos, with numerous armed uprisings, mass strikes, and attempts at military coups. Notably, between 1919 and 1920, workers in Italy seized factories, leading to a period known as the "Red Biennium." Radical factions of socialists and nationalists resorted to violence in their quest for power, severing ties with more moderate colleagues and forming distinct parties with their ideologies.
In response to the turmoil, ultra-left socialists established communist parties in both Germany and Italy, inspired by the Bolsheviks and their vision of a global revolution. Conversely, another faction of socialists allied with nationalists, advocating for the glorification of the state and nation. This alliance birthed fascism in Italy and national socialism (Nazism) in Germany.
Researchers typically categorize these ideologies as ultra-right, although they share commonalities with ultra-left ideologies. All three—communists, fascists, and national socialists—sought to dismantle democratic systems and consolidate power within their parties and leaders, diminishing the value of individual rights in favor of collective interests.
Italian democracy could not withstand the post-war upheavals and external humiliations. By the early 1920s, violent clashes between communists and fascists erupted, plunging the country into anarchy. In October 1922, the ultra-right fascists, led by Benito Mussolini, executed a march on Rome. The confused King Victor Emmanuel III appointed Mussolini as Prime Minister, effectively dismantling the democratic order.
Mussolini established a totalitarian regime, banning all parties except for the fascist party. Dissenters faced imprisonment or execution, and the regime imposed ultra-conservative values on society, including pressuring women to bear more children. Economically, Mussolini introduced the concept of a "corporate state," aiming to create a middle ground between capitalism and communism through state-controlled corporations.
In contrast, Germany attempted to establish a democratic political system in the aftermath of the war. In 1919, the German National Assembly adopted a new constitution in Weimar, marking the beginning of the Weimar Republic. Friedrich Ebert, a social democrat, became the first president. Despite facing numerous challenges, including leftist uprisings and hyperinflation in 1923, the new government managed to gain the support of the majority of the population.
The Dawes Plan, approved in 1924, spurred rapid economic growth in Germany, allowing the economy to recover and even surpass pre-war levels. This period also witnessed a flourishing of German culture, with notable figures like writer Erich Maria Remarque and actress Marlene Dietrich emerging during the Weimar years.
However, the reliance on American investments proved detrimental when the Great Depression struck in 1929, leading to severe economic hardship. As the populace struggled to understand the crisis, they increasingly turned to extremist parties, particularly the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), which gained traction through populist rhetoric and anti-Semitic ideologies.
In the 1932 elections, the NSDAP emerged victorious, and Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in January 1933. Although his appointment followed democratic procedures, he swiftly dismantled democratic institutions, consolidating power and abolishing the presidency. The Reichstag's legislative powers shifted to the government, effectively nullifying the constitution and civil rights.
Thus, the Weimar Republic, which had lasted 14 years, came to an end. Hitler, inspired by Mussolini, adopted similar economic models, promoting state intervention in the economy and establishing public works programs, including the construction of highways. By 1936, a four-year plan was implemented, echoing Soviet practices, while private ownership remained but was heavily regulated by the state.
In summary, both Italy and Germany witnessed the rise of totalitarian regimes led by ultra-right political parties during the interwar period. Understanding the nuances of these regimes requires a closer examination of the Soviet Union, where totalitarianism first took root and was most fully realized. In our next discussion, we will explore the Soviet experience in greater detail. Until next time!
