Stoicism, founded by Zeno of Citium, emphasizes living in harmony with nature and oneself through four cardinal virtues: courage, justice, temperance, and wisdom. These virtues guide individuals in achieving fulfillment and inner peace, promoting moral excellence and a balanced life.
Stoicism is a philosophy most popularly associated with figures like Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius. Founded by Zeno of Citium around 300 B.C., Stoicism's supreme goal is to live in agreement with nature. This concept encompasses both harmony with the universe and consistency between our thoughts and actions, allowing us to navigate life smoothly and achieve eudaimonia, often translated as happiness but more accurately described as fulfillment.
A common misconception about Stoicism is that it promotes a cold-hearted or unemotional approach to life. However, this is not the case. In the opening of Marcus Aurelius' Meditations, he reflects on the importance of his family and teachers, demonstrating that Stoicism is deeply rooted in real-life applications rather than abstract theories. Modern Stoics often refer to four cardinal virtues recognized by Plato and Christianity, which may date back even further: courage, justice, temperance, and wisdom.
The term virtue comes from the Latin word virtus, meaning moral excellence. The ancient Romans used this term to describe excellent qualities in individuals, including physical strength, valor, and moral integrity. To be virtuous is to excel at being human, leading to happiness and harmony.
Aristotle defined virtue as a balance between deficiency and excess, suggesting that true virtue lies in a 'golden mean.' For the Stoics, virtue is the only real good, necessary and sufficient for happiness. These virtues guide us in living harmoniously with ourselves, others, and the external world.
Courage stands in opposition to cowardice. It involves bravely standing up for one’s beliefs and facing daily challenges without complaint. Stoics strive for objectivity, recognizing that human suffering often stems from our beliefs about external events rather than the events themselves. Courage also encompasses the endurance of pain, discomfort, and even death.
An illustrative story from Aulus Gellius recounts a Stoic teacher caught in a storm at sea. Despite his fear, he refrained from lamentations, demonstrating that even wise individuals can experience fear but choose not to give in to it. The Stoic perspective emphasizes that true wisdom involves rejecting irrational fears and maintaining a consistent understanding of reality.
Justice, in the Stoic sense, extends beyond legal definitions to encompass moral conduct in our dealings with others. Marcus Aurelius succinctly stated, "Do the right thing, the rest doesn’t matter." This broader concept of social virtue includes kindness, benevolence, and goodwill. Stoic literature often features the theme of the Stoic hero who protects the vulnerable, emphasizing the importance of love and responsibility toward others.
Hierocles, a Stoic philosopher, suggested visualizing our relationships as concentric circles, with ourselves at the center, followed by family, community, and ultimately all humanity. This perspective encourages us to draw those in the outer circles closer to the center of our concern.
Temperance is often misunderstood as merely abstaining from excess, such as alcohol. For Stoics, it represents moderation and self-discipline. It involves knowing what to choose, what to avoid, and what to refrain from entirely. Stoics advocate for thoughtful responses to provocations rather than emotional reactions. Journaling is a recommended practice for cultivating temperance, allowing individuals to reflect on their emotions and responses.
Epictetus, a former slave, advised, "Don't seek for everything to happen as you wish it would, but rather wish that everything happens as it actually will—then your life will flow well." This principle aligns with the Stoic Dichotomy of Control, which emphasizes accepting what is beyond our control and focusing on our responses.
Wisdom, or prudence, is acquired through learning, discussion, and experience. The wise individual offers sound counsel and understands the nature of good and bad, as well as indifferent things. Seneca remarked that merely living long does not equate to truly living; one must develop oneself. The Stoics viewed the wise person as an ideal, with progress toward this goal being both possible and essential.
Wisdom involves understanding the most important aspects of life, closely related to the meaning of philosophy as the love of wisdom. Alienation from our fate is a recurring theme in Stoic literature, often leading to frustration. The Stoics practiced amor fati, or the love of fate, embracing whatever life presents.
By adhering to these four cardinal virtues—courage, justice, temperance, and wisdom—individuals can avoid becoming enslaved by their vices. These virtues serve as guiding principles for Stoics, enhancing their lives and the lives of those around them. Ultimately, Stoicism teaches us the Art of Living, encouraging us to apply these virtues in every situation we encounter.
